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本书的英文版即将出版
The Principles of astronomical telescope design
|
JINGQUAN CHENG |
|
National Radio
Astronomy Observatory Springer 2009 |
Dedication v
Contributing Reviewers xv
Preface of English
edition xvii
Preface of Chinese
edition
Acknowledgments 23
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Optical Telescopes
1.1 A brief history of optical telescopes
1.2 General astronomical requirements
1.2.1 Angular resolution
1.2.2 Light collecting power
1.2.3 Field-of-view and combined efficiency
1.2.4 Atmospheric windows and site
selection
1.3 Fundamentals of astronomical optics
1.3.1 Optical systems for astronomical
telescopes
1.3.2 Aberrations and their calculations
1.3.3 Formulas of telescope aberrations
1.3.4 Field corrector design
1.3.5 Ray tracing, spot diagram, and merit
function
1.4 Modern optical theory
1.4.1 Optical transfer function
1.4.2 Wave aberrations and modulation
transfer function
1.4.3 Wavefront error and the Strehl ratio
1.4.4 Image spatial frequency
1.4.5 Image property of a segmented mirror
system
References
Chapter 2 Mirror Design of Optical Telescopes
2.1 Specifications for optical mirror design
2.1.1 Fundamental requirements for optical
mirrors
2.1.2 Mirror surface error and support
systems
2.1.3 Surface error fitting and slope error
expression
2.2 Lightweight primary mirror design
2.2.1 Significance of lightweight mirrors
for telescopes
2.2.2 Thin mirror design
2.2.3 Honeycomb mirror design
2.2.4 Multi-mirror telescopes
2.2.5 Segmented mirror telescopes
2.2.6 Metal and lightweight mirrors
2.3 Mirror polishing and mirror supporting
2.3.1 Material properties of optical
mirrors
2.3.2 Optical mirror polishing
2.3.3 Vacuum coating
2.3.4 Mirror support mechanisms
2.4 Mirror seeing and stray light control
2.4.1 Mirror seeing effect
2.4.2 Stray light control
References
Chapter 3 Telescope Structures and Control System
3.1 Telescope mounting
3.1.1 Equatorial mounting
3.1.2 Altitude-azimuth mounting
3.1.3 Stewart platform mounting telescope
3.1.4 Fixed mirror or fixed altitude
mountings
3.2 Telescope tube and other structure design
3.2.1 Specifications for telescope tube
design
3.2.2 Telescope tube design
3.2.3 Support vane design for secondary
mirror
3.2.4 Telescope bearing design
3.2.5 Structural static analysis
3.3 Telescope drive and control
3.3.1 Specifications of telescope drive
system
3.3.2 Trends in drive system design
3.3.3 Encoder systems for telescopes
3.3.4 Pointing error corrections
3 3.5 Servo control and distributed
intelligence
3 3.6 Star guiding
3.4 Structural dynamic analysis
3.4.1 Wind and earthquake spectrums
3.4.2 Dynamic simulation of telescope
structures
3.4.3 Combined structural and control
simulation
3.4.4 Structural vibration control
3.4.5 Telescope foundation design
References
Chapter 4 Advanced Techniques for Optical Telescopes
4.1 Active and adaptive optics
4.1.1 Basic principles of active and
adaptive optics
4.1.2 Wavefront sensors
4.1.3 Actuators, deformable mirrors, phase
correctors, and metrology system
4.1.4 Active optical system and phasing
sensors
4.1.5 Curvature sensors and tip-tilt
devices
4.1.6 Atmosphere disturbance and adaptive
optics compensation
4.1.7 Artificial laser guide star and
adaptive optics
4.1.8 Atmosphere tomography and
multi-conjugate adaptive optics
4.1.9 Adaptive secondary mirror design
4.2 Optical interferometers
4.2.1 Speckle interferometer technique
4.2.2 Michelson interferometer
4.2.3 Fizeau interferometry
4.2.4 Intensity interferometry
4.2.5 Amplitude interferometer
References
Chapter 5 Space Telescopes and Their Development
5.1 Orbit environmental conditions
5.1.1 Orbit definition
5.1.2 Orbit thermal conditions
5.1.3 Other orbit conditions
5.2 Attitude control of space telescopes
5.2.1 Attitude sensors
5.2.2 Attitude actuators
5.3 Space telescope projects
5.3.1 Hubble Space Telescope
5.3.2 James Webb Space Telescope
5.3.3 Space Interferometry Mission and
other space programs
References
Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Radio Telescopes
6.1 Brief history of radio telescopes
6.2 Scientific requirements for radio telescopes
6.3 Atmospheric radio windows and site selection
6.4 Parameters of radio antennas
6.4.1 Radiation pattern
6.4.2 Antenna gain
6.4.3 Antenna temperature and noise
temperature
6.4.4 Antenna efficiency
6.4.5 Polarization properties
6.4.6 Optical arrangement of radio antennas
6.4.7 Characteristics of offset antennas
6.5 Radio telescope receivers
References
Chapter 7 Radio Telescope Design
7.1 Antenna tolerance and homologous design
7.1.1 Transmission loss of electromagnetic
waves
7.1.2 Antenna tolerance theory
7.1.3 Antenna homology
7.1.4 Antenna surface best fitting
7.1.5 Positional tolerances of antenna
reflector and feed
7.1.6 Aperture blockage and ground
radiation pickup
7.2 Radio telescope structure design
7.2.1 General types of radio antennas
7.2.2 Steerable parabolic antenna design
7.2.3 Wind effect on antenna structures
7.2.4 Active control of radio telescopes
7.3 Radio interferometers
7.3.1 Fundamentals of radio interferometers
7.3.2 Aperture synthesis telescopes
7.3.3 Weiner-Khinchin and Van
Cittert-Zernike theorems
7.3.4 Calibration: active optics after
observation
7.3.5 Very Large Array, Expanded Very Large
Array, and Square Kilometer Array
7.3.6 Very Long Baseline Array
7.3.7 Space radio interferometers
References
Chapter 8 Millimeter and Sub-millimeter Wavelength Telescopes
8.1 Thermal effects on millimeter wavelength telescopes
8.1.1 Characteristics of millimeter
wavelength telescopes
8.1.2 Thermal conditions of open air
antennas
8.1.3 Heat transfer formulae
8.1.4 Panel thermal design
8.1.5 Backup structure thermal design
8.2 Structural design of millimeter wavelength antennas
8.2.1 Panel requirements and manufacture
8.2.2 Backup structure design
8.2.3 Design of chopping secondary mirror
8.2.4 Sensors, metrology, and optical
pointing telescopes
8.2.5 Active optics used in millimeter
antennas
8.2.6 Antenna lightning protection
8.3 Carbon fiber composite materials
8.3.1 Properties of carbon fiber composites
8.3.2 Thermal deformation of shaped
sandwiched structures
8.3.3 CFRP-metal joint design
8.4 Holographic measurements and quasi-optics
8.4.1 Holographic measurements of antenna
surfaces
8.4.2 Surface panel adjusting
8.4.3 Quasi-optics
8.4.4 Broadband planar antennas
References
Chapter 9 Infrared, Ultra-violet, X-ray, and Gamma
Ray Telescopes
9.1 Infrared telescopes
9.1.1 Requirements of infrared telescopes
9.1.2 Structural properties of infrared
telescopes
9.1.3 Balloon-borne and space based
infrared telescopes
9.2 X-ray and ultra-violet telescopes
9.2.1 Properties of X-ray radiation
9.2.2 X-ray imaging telescopes
9.2.3 Space X-ray telescopes
9.2.4 Micro-Arc-second X-ray Image Mission
9.2.5 Space ultra-violet telescopes
9.3 Gamma ray telescopes
9.3.1 Gamma ray coded mask telescopes
9.3.2 Compton scattering and pair
telescopes
9.3.3 Space gamma ray telescopes
9.3.4 Air Cherenkov telescopes
9.3.5 Extensive air shower array
9.3.6 Major ground based gamma ray
telescopes
References
Chapter 10 Gravitational Wave, Cosmic Ray and
Dark Matter Telescopes
10.1 Gravitational wave telescopes
10.1.1 Gravitational wave fundamentals
10.1.2 Resonant gravitational wave
telescopes
10.1.3 Laser interferometer gravitational
wave detectors
10.1.4 Important gravitational wave
telescope projects
10.1.5 Other gravitational wave and gravity
telescopes
10.2 Cosmic ray telescopes
10.2.1 Cosmic ray
spectrum
10.2.2 Cosmic ray EAS
array telescopes
10.2.3 Cosmic ray
fluorescence detectors
10.2.4 Magnetic
spectrometer detectors
10.3 Dark matter detectors
10.3.1 Cold and hot dark matter
10.3.2 Detection of neutrinos
10.3.3 Status of neutrino telescopes
10.3.4 Detection of cold dark matter
References
Chapter 11 Review of Astronomical Telescopes
11.1 Electromagnetic wave and atmosphere transmission
11.2 Non-electromagnetic telescopes
11.3 Ground astronomical telescopes
11.4 Space astronomical telescopes
11.5 Man's space missions
11.6 Reconnaissance Telescopes
References
Appendix A:
Abbreviations of telescope names
Appendix B: Prefixes
for standard units
Index
Preface of English Edition
Progress in
astronomy has been fueled by the construction of many large classical and
modern telescopes. Today, astronomical telescopes image celestial sources not
only across the wide electromagnetic spectrum from 10 meter radio waves to 100
zeptometer (
) gamma rays, but
also through other spectra in gravitational waves, cosmic rays, and dark
matter. Electromagnetic and other waves or particles cover a very wide energy
density range. Very high energy cosmic rays have energy a billion times greater
than that accelerated at Fermilab and some light dark matter particles have
tiny energies beyond the detection limit with the finest existing quantum
devices. Now astronomical telescopes are very large, very expensive, and very
sophisticated. They are colossal in size, extremely demanding in
technology, and terribly high in cost.
Due to the technology, scale of construction, and the desire of
scientists to plumb the depths of the Universe, astronomy today epitomizes the
oft-used expression “Big Science.”
Over the past 400
years, the size, the wave or particle types, and the spectral coverage of
astronomical telescopes have increased substantially. Currently large optical
telescopes have apertures as large as 10 meters (78 m2). It
is important to note that the total optical collecting area around the world in
the past 20 years has more than tripled. At radio wavelengths, the largest
collecting area of a single telescope is still dominated by the 300
. In gravitational
wave detection, the Laser
Interferometer Gravitational wave Observatory (LIGO) has two very long laser interferometer arms, each 4 
long (much longer if multi-reflection is taken
into account). The sensitivity acquired by this instrument is as low as 
. For cosmic ray
detection, the Pierre Auger Observatory has 30 fluorescence detectors and 1,600
water Cherenkov detecting stations over a surface area of 6,000
on earth. In the
search for dark matter particles, thousands of detectors are located between
1,400 m and 2,400 m underground at the South Pole. Detectors are
also located at other underground or underwater locations all over the world.
Some of these detectors are working at extremely low temperatures of 20-40
millikelvins.
At the current
time, plans are underway to construct optical telescopes with apertures up to
42 , radio telescope
arrays up to a square kilometer aperture area, and space telescopes of
diameters up to 6.5 . Extremely
sensitive gravitational wave detectors, large cosmic ray telescopes, and the most
sensitive dark matter telescopes are also under construction. Larger aperture
area, lower detector temperature, and sophisticated technology greatly improve
the sensitivity of telescopes. This means more detecting power for fainter and
far away objects and increasing clarity of star images. However, it is not just
the size and accuracy of a telescope that matters; the gain in efficiency that
results from performing many functions simultaneously and the ability to
measure spectra and to monitor rapid variation are also important figures of
merit.
Interferometry was pioneered by radio interferometers. A resolution of 50 milliarcseconds was routinely obtained by the VLA. Long baseline interferometry at millimeter wavelengths, using the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), can achieve a thousand times better angular resolution than that of the VLA. In the optical field, an important breakthrough has been achieved in optical interferometers. Another important achievement is the development of active and adaptive optics (AO). Active and adaptive optics holds promise to transform a whole new generation of optical telescopes which have large aperture size as well as diffraction limited image capability, improving the angular resolution of ground based telescopes. In non-electromagnetic wave detections, extremely low temperature, vibration isolation, adaptive compensation for interference, superconductor transition edge sensors, and SQUID quantum detectors are widely used for improving instrument sensitivity and accuracy. All of these improvements are pushing technologies in many fields to their limiting boundaries. In general, modern telescope projects are extremely different from any other comparable commercial projects as they heavily involve extensive scientific research and state-of the-art innovative technical development.
To write a book on these exciting and multi-field telescope techniques is a real challenge. The author’s intention is to introduce the basic principles, essential theories, and fundamental techniques related to different astronomical telescopes in a step-by-step manner. From the book, the reader can immediately get into the frontier of these exciting fields. The book pays particular attention to relevant technologies such as: active and adaptive optics; artificial guide star; speckle, Michelson, Fizeau, intensity, and amplitude interferometers; aperture synthesis; holographic surface measurement; infrared signal modulation; optical truss; broadband planar antenna; stealth surface design; laser interferometer; Cherenkov fluorescence detector; wide field of view retro-reflector; wavefront, curvature, and phasing sensors; x-ray and gamma ray imaging; actuators; metrology system; and many more. The principles behind these technologies are also presented in a manner tempered by practical applications. Important telescope component design is also discussed in relevant chapters. Because many component design principles can be applied to a particular telescope design, readers should reference all relevant chapters and sections when a telescope design project is undertaken.
The early version of this book started as lecture notes for
postgraduate students in 1986 in
The author
December, 2008